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Pieris brassicae, the large white, also called cabbage butterfly, cabbage white, cabbage moth (erroneously), or in India the large cabbage white, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae. It is a close relative of the small white, Pieris rapae.

The large white is common throughout Europe, North Africa and Asia.

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• 2Morphology
  • 2.3Adult
• 4Reproduction and development
  • 4.2Life cycle
    • 4.2.1Oviposition
• 5Behaviour
• 6Ecology
• 7Relationship to people

Distribution[edit]

The large white is common throughout Europe, north Africa, and Asia to the Himalayas often in agricultural areas, meadows and parkland. It has managed to establish a population in South Africa and in 1995 it was predicted to spread to Australia and New Zealand.^[1][2]

The large white is a strong flier and the British population is reinforced in most years by migrations from the continent. Scattered reports of the large white from the north-eastern United States (New York, Rhode Island and Maine) over the past century are of a dubious nature and indicate either accidental transport or intentional release. Such introductions threaten to establish this agricultural pest in North America.

In 2010 the butterfly was found in Nelson, New Zealand where it is known as the great white butterfly.^[3] It is classed as an unwanted pest due to the potential effect on crops.^[4] For a limited period in October 2013 the Department of Conservation offered a monetary reward for the capture of the butterfly.^[5] After two weeks, the public had captured 134 butterflies, netting $10 for each one handed in.^[6] As a result of this and other containment measures, such as over 263,000 searches in the upper South Island and the release of predatory wasps, the large white was officially declared to be eradicated from New Zealand as of December 2014.^[7]

5th Edition Dungeons And Dragons

Morphology[edit]

Eggs[edit]

The large white eggs appear as a pale yellow colour. They turn into a darker yellow within twenty-four hours of being oviposited. A few hours prior to hatching, they will become black in colour, and the shell will become more transparent, and the larvae will appear visible.^[8]

Larvae[edit]

Large white larvae experience four moultings and five instars. The first instar follows hatching of the egg into large white larvae. The larvae are a light yellow in colour with distinctive brown heads and have soft bodies. The larvae appear as if they are very hairy. Following a moulting, the larvae enter the second instar. They have tubercles covered with black hair. In the third instar, large white larvae display more activity. This instar is when the larvae are observed to eat voraciously, and cause significant amounts of damage to their host plant. At this point, they are observed to be more yellow in colour, studded with black dots. Following the third instar, the larvae go through the fourth instar, with similar appearances as the larvae of the third instar, but with more aggrandized size and feeding behaviour. The large white larvae are observed to be cylindrical, robust, and elongated by the fifth instar, yellow in colour^[8] and with bright colouration on their abdomen and thorax. They are also observed to have a grey and black head. This instar requires maximum food quality and quantity in order to aid in full development, otherwise the larva dies before becoming an adult butterfly.^[8][9]

Adult[edit]

For both males and females, the wings are white with black tips on the forewings. The female also has two black spots on each forewing. The underside of each wing is a pale greenish and serves as excellent camouflage when at rest. The black markings are generally darker in the summer brood. The large white butterfly's wingspan reaches 5 to 6.5 cm on average.^[8]

Male[edit]

The upperside of the male is creamy white. The forewing is irrorated (sprinkled) with black scales at the base and along costa for a short distance. The apex and termen above vein 2 are more or less broadly black with the inner margin of the black area containing a regular even curve. In one or two specimens a small longitudinally narrow black spot was found in interspace 3. Hindwing: uniform, irrorated with black scales at base, a large black subcostal spot before the apex, and in a few specimens indications of black scaling on the termen anteriorly. The underside of the forewing is white, slightly irrorated with black scales at the base of cell and along costa. The apex is light ochraceous brown with a large black spot in outer half of interspace 1 and another quadrate black spot at base of interspace 3. The hindwing is light ochraceous brown, closely irrorated with minute black scales. The subcostal black spot before the apex shows through from the upperside. The antennae are black and white at apex. The head, thorax, and abdomen are black, with some white hairs, where underneath is whitish.^[10]

Female[edit]

The upperside of the female is similar to that of the male, but the irroration of black scales at the bases of the wings is more extended. The black area on apex and termen of forewing is broader, its inner margin less evenly curved. A conspicuous large, black spot also exists in the outer half of interspace 1 near the base of interspace 3. On the hindwing the subcostal black spot before the apex is much larger and more prominent. The underside is similar to that of the male but the apex of the forewing and the whole surface of the hindwing is a light ochraceous yellow, not ochraceous brown. The black discal spots on forewing are much larger. The antennae, head, thorax, and abdomen of the females are the same as for the male.^[10]

Habitat[edit]

The large white butterfly's habitat consists of large, open spaces, as well as farms and vegetable gardens, because of the availability of its food source. Some favoured locations include walls, fences, tree trunks, and often their food plant, which is important for large white survival since they need to have access to their food source for survival. They primarily hover around these locations, which should contain both wild and cultivated crucifer, as well as oil-seed rape, cabbages, and Brussels sprouts.^[11][12][13]

Reproduction and development[edit]

Mating system[edit]

These butterflies can be polyandrous, but it is not the predominant mating system. This means that, though some female butterflies can have more than one mate, most of the large white females only have one male mate at a time through a monogamous mating system.^[14][15]

Two generations of butterflies are produced each year. The first brood consists of adults with a spring hatching around April. The second brood is made up of adults that hatch around July. Sometimes, a third brood can be observed farther along in the summer if the weather is warm enough.^[16]

Life cycle[edit]

Oviposition[edit]

These female butterflies oviposit eggs in bunches on the undersides of leaves because the larvae prefer the morphology of leaf undersides over the upper surface of leaves. To oviposit, the female butterflies use the tip of the abdomen and arrange the eggs in specific batches.^[17]

The pre-oviposition period, which lasts three to eight days, provides ample time for these butterflies to mate.^[18] Females tend to use their forelegs to drum on the surfaces of their intended leaves as a test of the plant's suitability for breeding. If they find a suitable surface, female large whites oviposit two to three days following copulation. They oviposit approximately six to seven times in eight days. The females can pair up to mate again approximately five or more days after the previous mating.^[17]

Choosing locations for oviposition[edit]

Females rely on visual cues, such as the colours of plants, to decide where to lay their eggs. They favour green surfaces in particular to display oviposition behaviour. This colour preference could be due to the fact that the large white's food source also acts as a host plant for oviposition.^[17]

Most females choose nectar plants like buddleia or thistles,^[19][20] which are green and ideal plants for the larvae. These plants, used as oviposition sites, typically contain mustard oil glucosides, whose primary function is to help the larvae survive as their essential food source.^[17][21] For instance, previous studies have shown that the large white larvae do not survive if the adult butterflies oviposit on a different host plant such as broad bean (Vicia faba) because this bean does not contain the proper nutrients to aid in larval development.^[17]

Hatching[edit]

The large white eggs hatch approximately one week after being laid and live as a group for some time.^[11][12][13] The hatching period constitutes around two to seven hours. Upon hatching, they cause a lot of damage to the host plant by eating away at and destroying the host plant.^[11][12][13]

Behaviour[edit]

Migration[edit]

The large whites are found throughout most of Eurasia, though there are some seasonal fluctuations present due to migration. The northern populations tend to be augmented during the summer migration season from butterflies from southern areas. The large whites fly starting early spring, and keep migrating until seasons shift to autumn and the resultant cold weather. This means the large whites typically take two to three flights per butterfly reproductive season.^[16][19][20]

Large white butterfly migration patterns are typically observed only when there is a disturbance. In general, the large white butterfly's migratory patterns are atypical; normally, butterflies fly towards the poles in the spring, and towards the more temperate Equator during the fall. However, they fly in random directions, excluding north, in the spring, and there is little return migration observed.^[22] However, it has been hard to track entire migratory paths, since these butterflies can migrate more than 800 kilometres; thus, individual butterflies may not migrate the 800 kilometres, but rather that other butterflies start their migrations from where the other butterflies ended.^[22]

Hibernation[edit]

Large white broods in the north have not been seen to overwinter, or hibernate over the winter, successfully. However, they have been observed to hibernate in the south.^[9][22][23]

Territorial behaviour[edit]

Males do not display considerable amounts of territorial behaviour. It has been suggested that this could be a reason why there is no observed significant sexual dimorphism between the male and female large white butterflies.^[15]

Ecology[edit]

Diet and food selection[edit]

Large white butterflies have a preference for what types of food plant they usually eat. Studies have shown that the preference for certain plants is reliant upon the butterflies' previous experiences. The large white butterflies, then, are shown to rely on the species of food plants, the time of experience, and the choice-situation. Thus, the large white butterflies learn what types of foods they prefer, rather than relying on their sense organs or physiological changes.^[21] In contrast, this preference for adult food plant differs from the preference of female large whites using visual cues such as plant colour to determine the best host plants for oviposition.^[17]

Plants with mustard-oil glucosides are important for this butterfly because it dictates their eating behaviours,^[21] and resultant survival rates, as specified in the section regarding oviposition. This is so beneficial for large whites because their large consumption of plants containing mustard oils is the specific reason they are so distasteful to predators, such as birds. Thus, caterpillars are protected from attack, despite them being brightly coloured; in fact, the bright colouration is to signal to predators that they taste bad.^[11][12][13]

However, there is more benefit to this species' use of mustard oil glucosides. In addition to predator protection, these glucosides belong to a class of stimuli that produce the biting responses associated with eating. Some plants contain alkaloids and steroids; these reduce and inhibit the butterflies' responsiveness to mustard oil glucosides. Thus, this utilization of mustard oil glucosides dramatically affects the behaviour of the butterfly, and the resulting food selection for survival.^[21]

The food source of the larva of the white butterfly are cabbages, radishes, and the undersides of leaves. Adults feed on flower nectar.

Predators[edit]

Large white butterflies do not have a specific group of predators. Instead, they are preyed upon by a wide range of animals, and even the occasional plant. This butterfly's main predators include birds; however, large whites can also be preyed upon by species in orders such as Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Arachnid; some species of mammals, one of reptiles, one species of insectivorous plant, and species in amphibian orders, as well as other miscellaneous insect species. The butterflies are typically preyed upon as eggs, larvae, and imagines.^[22]

Aposematism[edit]

Large white butterflies emit an unpleasant smell which deters predators. In addition, large whites are an aposematic species, meaning that they display warning colours, which benefits the large whites against predation. This aposematic colouration occurs in the larval, pupal, and imago stages, where toxic mustard oil glycosides from food plants are stored in the individuals' bodies.^[22][24] Aposematism is not entirely related to Müllerian mimicry; however, large white larvae often benefit from multiple other aposematic larvae from other species, such as the larvae of Papilio machaon.^[25]

Relationship to people[edit]

Role as pests[edit]

The crops most susceptible to P. brassicae damage in areas in Europe are those in the genus Brassica (cabbage, mustard, and their allies), particularly Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kohlrabi, rape, swede, and turnip. The attacks to crops are rather localized and can lead to 100% crop loss in a certain area. In addition, because of its strong inclination to migrate, adults may infest new areas that were previously free from attack. Because many of the host plants of P. brassicae are sold for consumption, damage by these butterflies can cause a great reduction of crop value. Larvae may also bore into the vegetable heads of cabbage and cauliflower and cause damage. High populations of these larvae may also skeletonise their host plants. In present-day areas such as Great Britain, P. brassicae are now less threatening as pests because of natural and chemical control reasons. However, it is still considered a pest in other European countries, in China, India, Nepal, and Russia. In fact, it is estimated to cause over 40% yield loss annually on different crop vegetables in India and Turkey.^[26]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'Pieris brassicae'. Biodiversityexplorer.org. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
2. ^'The Large Cabbage White, Pieris brassicae, extends its range to South Africa'. The Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation. 107: 174. 1995. ISSN0013-8916.
3. ^Moore, Bill (17 June 2010). 'Great white butterfly found in Nelson'. Nelson Mail. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
4. ^'Great white cabbage butterfly'(PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
5. ^Wanted: Great white butterfly, preferably dead. 3 News NZ. 25 September 2013.
6. ^Holiday butterfly bounty season over. 3 News NZ. 14 October 2013.
7. ^Klein, Alice (29 November 2016). 'New Zealand is the first country to wipe out invasive butterfly'. New Scientist. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
8. ^ ^abcdMolet, T. 2011. CPHST Pest Datasheet for Pieris brassicae. USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST.
9. ^ ^abMetspalu, L., K. Hiiesaar, J. Joudu, and A. Kuusik. 'Influence of Food on Growth, Development and Hibernation of Large White Butterfly.' Agronomy Research 1 (2003): 85-92. Print.
10. ^ ^abBingham, C.T. (1907). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. II (1st ed.). London: Taylor and Francis, Ltd.
11. ^ ^abcdCarter, D. (1992) Butterflies and moths. Dorling Kindersley, London.
12. ^ ^abcdAsher, J., Warren, M., Fox, R., Harding, P., Jeffcoate, G. & Jeffcoate, S. (2001) The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies in Britain and Ireland. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
13. ^ ^abcdCarter, D. & Hargreaves, B. (1986) A field guide to caterpillars of butterflies and moths in Britain and Europe. William Collins & Sons Ltd, London.
14. ^Karlsson, B. 'Male Reproductive Reserves in Relation to Mating System in Butterflies: A Comparative Study.' Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 263.1367 (1996): 187-92. Print.
15. ^ ^abSexual Size Dimorphism in Relation to Female Polygamy and Protandry in Butterflies: A Comparative Study of Swedish Pieridae and Satyridae Christer Wiklund and Johan Forsberg Oikos , Vol. 60, Fasc. 3 (Apr., 1991), pp. 373-381
16. ^ ^ab'Pieris Brassicae — Overview.' Encyclopedia of Life. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Oct. 2013.
17. ^ ^abcdefW. A. L. David and B. O. C. Gardiner (1962). Oviposition and the hatching of the eggs of Pieris brassicae (L.) in a laboratory culture. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 53, pp 91-109. doi:10.1017/S0007485300047982.
18. ^Scott, James A. 'Mate-Locating Behavior of Butterflies.' American Midland Naturalist 91.1 (1974): 103-17. Print.
19. ^ ^abRowlings, Matt. 'Large White.' Pieris Brassicae - Field Notes. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Oct. 2013.
20. ^ ^ab'Attributes of Pieris Brassicae.' Butterflies and Moths of North America | Collecting and Sharing Data about Lepidoptera. National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) Program and the USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, n.d. Web. 24 Oct. 2013.
21. ^ ^abcdChun, Ma Wei. Dynamics of Feeding Responses in Pieris Brassicae Linn as a Function of Chemosensory Input: A Behavioural, Ultrastructural and Electrophysiological Study. Wageningen: H. Veenman, 1972. Print.
22. ^ ^abcdeFeltwell, John. Large White Butterfly: The Biology, Biochemistry, and Physiology of Pieris Brassicae (Linnaeus). The Hague: W. Junk, 1982. Print.
23. ^Pullin, A. S., J. S. Bale, and X. L. R. Fontaine. 'Physiological Aspects of Diapause and Cold Tolerance during Overwintering in Pieris Brassicae.' Physiological Entomology 16.4 (1991): 447-56. Print.
24. ^Lyytinen, Anne; Alatalo, Rauno V.; Lindström, Leena; Mappes, Johanna (November 1999). 'Are European White Butterflies Aposematic?'(PDF). Evolutionary Ecology. 13 (7/8): 709–719. doi:10.1023/A:1011081800202. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
25. ^Evans, edited by David L.; Schmidt, Justin O. (1990). Insect defenses: adaptive mechanisms and strategies of prey and predators. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN978-0791406168.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
26. ^'Pieris brassicae'. Retrieved 21 November 2013.

5th Edition Srd

Quality of life (QOL) is an overarching term for the quality of the various domains in life. It is a standard level that consists of the expectations of an individual or society for a good life. These expectations are guided by the values, goals and socio-cultural context in which an individual lives. It is a subjective, multidimensional concept that defines a standard level for emotional, physical, material and social well-being such as freedom from pain, freedom from worry and freedom from sickness. It serves as a reference against which an individual or society can measure the different domains of one’s own life. The extent to which one's own life coincides with this desired standard level, put differently, the degree to which these domains give satisfaction and as such contribute to one's subjective well-being, is called life satisfaction.

• 2Quantitative measurement
  • 2.4Livability
• 5See also

Overview[edit]

Quality of life is the general well-being of individuals and societies, outlining negative and positive features of life. It observes life satisfaction, including everything from physical health, family, education, employment, wealth, safety, security to freedom, religious beliefs, and the environment.^[1] QOL has a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, politics and employment. It is important not to mix up the concept of QOL with a more recent growing area of health related QOL (HRQOL^[2]). An assessment of HRQOL is effectively an evaluation of QOL and its relationship with health.

Quality of life should not be confused with the concept of standard of living, which is based primarily on income.

Standard indicators of the quality of life include not only wealth and employment but also the built environment, physical and mental health, education, recreation and leisure time, and social belonging.^[3][4] According to the World Health Organization (WHO), quality of life is defined as “the individual’s perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals.” In comparison to WHO's definitions, the Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale defines quality of life as “life quality (in this case, physical pain) at a precise moment in time.”^[5]

According to ecological economist Robert Costanza:

While Quality of Life (QOL) has long been an explicit or implicit policy goal, adequate definition and measurement have been elusive. Diverse 'objective' and 'subjective' indicators across a range of disciplines and scales, and recent work on subjective well-being (SWB) surveys and the psychology of happiness have spurred renewed interest.^[6]

One approach, called engaged theory, outlined in the journal of Applied Research in the Quality of Life, posits four domains in assessing quality of life: ecology, economics, politics and culture.^[7] In the domain of culture, for example, it includes the following subdomains of quality of life:

• Belief and ideas
• Creativity and recreation
• Enquiry and learning
• Gender and generations
• Identity and engagement
• Memory and projection
• Well-being and health

Also frequently related are concepts such as freedom, human rights, and happiness. However, since happiness is subjective and difficult to measure, other measures are generally given priority. It has also been shown that happiness, as much as it can be measured, does not necessarily increase correspondingly with the comfort that results from increasing income. As a result, standard of living should not be taken to be a measure of happiness.^[3][8] Also sometimes considered related is the concept of human security, though the latter may be considered at a more basic level and for all people.

Quantitative measurement[edit]

Unlike per capita GDP or standard of living, both of which can be measured in financial terms, it is harder to make objective or long-term measurements of the quality of life experienced by nations or other groups of people. Researchers have begun in recent times to distinguish two aspects of personal well-being: Emotional well-being, in which respondents are asked about the quality of their everyday emotional experiences—the frequency and intensity of their experiences of, for example, joy, stress, sadness, anger, and affection— and life evaluation, in which respondents are asked to think about their life in general and evaluate it against a scale.^[9] Such and other systems and scales of measurement have been in use for some time. Research has attempted to examine the relationship between quality of life and productivity.^[10] There are many different methods of measuring quality of life in terms of health care, wealth and materialistic goods. However, it is much more difficult to measure meaningful expression of one's desires. One way to do so is to evaluate the scope of how individuals have fulfilled their own ideals. Quality of life can simply mean happiness, the subjective state of mind. By using that mentality, citizens of a developing country appreciate more since they are content with the basic necessities of health care, education and child protection.^[11]

Human Development Index[edit]

Perhaps the most commonly used international measure of development is the Human Development Index (HDI), which combines measures of life expectancy, education, and standard of living, in an attempt to quantify the options available to individuals within a given society. The HDI is used by the United Nations Development Programme in their Human Development Report.

World Happiness Report[edit]

The World Happiness Report is a landmark survey on the state of global happiness. It ranks 156 countries by their happiness levels, reflecting growing global interest in using happiness and substantial well-being as an indicator of the quality of human development. Its growing purpose has allowed governments, communities and organizations to use appropriate data to record happiness in order to enable policies to provide better lives. The reports review the state of happiness in the world today and show how the science of happiness explains personal and national variations in happiness.^[12] Also developed by the United Nations and published recently along with the HDI, this report combines both objective and subjective measures to rank countries by happiness, which is deemed as the ultimate outcome of a high quality of life. It uses surveys from Gallup, real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived freedom to make life choices, freedom from corruption, and generosity to derive the final score. Happiness is already recognised as an important concept in global public policy. The World Happiness Report indicates that some regions have in recent years been experiencing progressive inequality of happiness. Without life, there is no happiness to be realised.^[13]

Other measures[edit]

The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) is a measure developed by sociologist Morris David Morris in the 1970s, based on basic literacy, infant mortality, and life expectancy. Although not as complex as other measures, and now essentially replaced by the Human Development Index, the PQLI is notable for Morris's attempt to show a 'less fatalistic pessimistic picture' by focusing on three areas where global quality of life was generally improving at the time and ignoring gross national product and other possible indicators that were not improving.^[14]

The Happy Planet Index, introduced in 2006, is unique among quality of life measures in that, in addition to standard determinants of well-being, it uses each country's ecological footprint as an indicator. As a result, European and North American nations do not dominate this measure. The 2012 list is instead topped by Costa Rica, Vietnam and Colombia.^[15]

Gallup researchers trying to find the world's happiest countries found Denmark to be at the top of the list.^[16]uSwitch publishes an annual quality of life index for European countries. France has topped the list for the last three years.^[17]

A 2010 study by two Princeton University professors looked at 1,000 randomly selected U.S. residents over an extended period. It concludes that their life evaluations – that is, their considered evaluations of their life against a stated scale of one to ten – rise steadily with income. On the other hand, their reported quality of emotional daily experiences (their reported experiences of joy, affection, stress, sadness, or anger) levels off after a certain income level (approximately $75,000 per year); income above $75,000 does not lead to more experiences of happiness nor to further relief of unhappiness or stress. Below this income level, respondents reported decreasing happiness and increasing sadness and stress, implying the pain of life's misfortunes, including disease, divorce, and being alone, is exacerbated by poverty.^[18]

Gross national happiness and other subjective measures of happiness are being used by the governments of Bhutan and the United Kingdom.^[19] The World Happiness report, issued by Columbia University^[20] is a meta-analysis of happiness globally and provides an overview of countries and grassroots activists using GNH. The OECD issued a guide for the use of subjective well-being metrics in 2013.^[21] In the U.S., cities and communities are using a GNH metric at a grassroots level.^[22]

The Social Progress Index measures the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens. Fifty-two indicators in the areas of basic human needs, foundations of wellbeing, and opportunity show the relative performance of nations. The index uses outcome measures when there is sufficient data available or the closest possible proxies.

Day-Reconstruction Method was another way of measuring happiness, in which researchers asked their subjects to recall various things they did on the previous day and describe their mood during each activity. Being simple and approachable, this method required memory and the experiments have confirmed that the answers that people give are similar to those who repeatedly recalled each subject. The method eventually declined as it called for more effort and thoughtful responses, which often included interpretations and outcomes that do not occur to people who are asked to record every action in their daily lives.^[23]

Livability[edit]

The term quality of life is also used by politicians and economists to measure the livability of a given city or nation. Two widely known measures of livability are the Economist Intelligence Unit'sWhere-to-be-born Index and Mercer's Quality of Living Reports. These two measures calculate the livability of countries and cities around the world, respectively, through a combination of subjective life-satisfaction surveys and objective determinants of quality of life such as divorce rates, safety, and infrastructure. Such measures relate more broadly to the population of a city, state, or country, not to individual quality of life. Livability has a long history and tradition in urban design, and neighborhoods design standards such as LEED-ND are often used in an attempt to influence livability.^[24]

Crimes[edit]

Some crimes against property (e.g., graffiti and vandalism) and some 'victimless crimes' have been referred to as 'quality-of-life crimes.' American sociologistJames Q. Wilson encapsulated this argument as the broken windows theory, which asserts that relatively minor problems left unattended (such as litter, graffiti, or public urination by homeless individuals) send a subliminal message that disorder in general is being tolerated, and as a result, more serious crimes will end up being committed (the analogy being that a broken window left broken shows an image of general dilapidation).

Wilson's theories have been used to justify the implementation of zero tolerance policies by many prominent American mayors, most notably Oscar Goodman in Las Vegas, Richard Riordan in Los Angeles, Rudolph Giuliani in New York City and Gavin Newsom in San Francisco. Such policies refuse to tolerate even minor crimes; proponents argue that this will improve the quality of life of local residents. However, critics of zero tolerance policies believe that such policies neglect investigation on a case-by-case basis and may lead to unreasonably harsh penalties for crimes.

Popsicle index[edit]

The popsicle index is a quality-of-life measurement coined by Catherine Austin Fitts as the percentage of people in a community who believe that a child in their community can leave their home alone, go to the nearest possible location to buy a popsicle or other snack, and return home safely.^[25][26][27]

In healthcare[edit]

Within the field of healthcare, quality of life is often regarded in terms of how a certain ailment affects a patient on an individual level. This may be a debilitating weakness that is not life-threatening; life-threatening illness that is not terminal; terminal illness; the predictable, natural decline in the health of an elder; an unforeseen mental/physical decline of a loved one; or chronic, end-stage disease processes. Researchers at the University of Toronto's Quality of Life Research Unit define quality of life as 'The degree to which a person enjoys the important possibilities of his or her life' (UofT). Their Quality of Life Model is based on the categories 'being', 'belonging', and 'becoming'; respectively who one is, how one is not connected to one's environment, and whether one achieves one's personal goals, hopes, and aspirations.^[28][29]

Experience sampling studies show substantial between-person variability in within-person associations between somatic symptoms and quality of life.^[30] Hecht and Shiel measure quality of life as “the patient’s ability to enjoy normal life activities” since life quality is strongly related to wellbeing without suffering from sickness and treatment.^[5] There are multiple assessments available that measure Health-Related Quality of Life, e.g., AQoL-8D, EQ5D - Euroqol, 15D, SF-36, SF-6D, HUI.

In international development[edit]

Quality of life is an important concept in the field of international development since it allows development to be analyzed on a measure broader than standard of living. Within development theory, however, there are varying ideas concerning what constitutes desirable change for a particular society, and the different ways that quality of life is defined by institutions therefore shapes how these organizations work for its improvement as a whole.

Organisations such as the World Bank, for example, declare a goal of 'working for a world free of poverty',^[31] with poverty defined as a lack of basic human needs, such as food, water, shelter, freedom, access to education, healthcare, or employment.^[32] In other words, poverty is defined as a low quality of life. Using this definition, the World Bank works towards improving quality of life through the stated goal of lowering poverty and helping people afford a better quality of life.

Other organizations, however, may also work towards improved global quality of life using a slightly different definition and substantially different methods. Many NGOs do not focus at all on reducing poverty on a national or international scale, but rather attempt to improve quality of life for individuals or communities. One example would be sponsorship programs that provide material aid for specific individuals. Although many organizations of this type may still talk about fighting poverty, the methods are significantly different.

Improving quality of life involves action not only by NGOs but also by governments. Global health has the potential to achieve greater political presence if governments were to incorporate aspects of human security into foreign policy. Stressing individuals’ basic rights to health, food, shelter, and freedom addresses prominent inter-sectoral problems negatively impacting today's society and may lead to greater action and resources. Integration of global health concerns into foreign policy may be hampered by approaches that are shaped by the overarching roles of defense and diplomacy.^[33]

See also[edit]

Indices[edit]

Journals[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Barcaccia, Barbara (4 September 2013). 'Quality Of Life: Everyone Wants It, But What Is It?'. Forbes/ Education. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
2. ^Bottomley, Andrew (2002). 'The Cancer Patient and Quality of Life'. The Oncologist. 7 (2): 120–125. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.7-2-120. ISSN1083-7159. PMID11961195.
3. ^ ^abGregory, Derek; Johnston, Ron; Pratt, Geraldine; Watts, Michael; et al., eds. (June 2009). 'Quality of Life'. Dictionary of Human Geography (5th ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN978-1-4051-3287-9.
4. ^Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen, ed. (1993). The Quality of Life, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Description and chapter-preview links.
5. ^ ^abMcNally, James W. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Life Course and Human Development (vol.3 ed.). USA: Macmillan Reference. p. 317.
6. ^Costanza, R.; et al. (2008). 'An Integrative Approach to Quality of Life Measurement, Research, and Policy'. S.a.p.i.en.s. 1 (1).
7. ^Magee, Liam; James, Paul; Scerri, Andy (2012). 'Measuring Social Sustainability: A Community-Centred Approach'. Applied Research in the Quality of Life. 7 (3): 239–61. doi:10.1007/s11482-012-9166-x.
8. ^Layard, Richard (6 April 2006). Happiness: Lessons from a New Science. London: Penguin. ISBN978-0-14-101690-0.
9. ^Kahneman, D.; Deaton, A. (2010). 'High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (38): 16489–16493. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10716489K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1011492107. PMC2944762. PMID20823223.
10. ^Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, The Increasing Importance of Quality of Life, October 2008Archived 19 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
11. ^Singer, Peter (2011). 'The Big Question: Quality of Life'. World Policy Journal. 28 (2): 3–6. doi:10.1177/0740277511415049. PMID22165429.
12. ^'World Happiness Report'. Overview. Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (2016). World Happiness Report 2016, Update (Vol. I). New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network. 2016. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
13. ^The Lancet (26 March 2016). 'Health and Happiness'. The Lancet. 387 (10025): 1251. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30062-9. PMID27025416.
14. ^Morris, Morris David (January 1980). 'The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)'. Development Digest. 1: 95–109.
15. ^'The Happy Planet Index 2.0'. New Economics Foundation. 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
16. ^Levy, Francesca (14 July 2010). 'Table: The World's Happiest Countries'. Forbes. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
17. ^King, Mark (29 September 2011). 'Table: UK has 'worst quality of life in Europe''. The Guardian.
18. ^'Higher income improves life rating but not emotional well-being'. PhysOrg.com. 7 September 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
19. ^'Measures of National Well-Being'.
20. ^John Helliwell, Richard Layard and Jeffrey Sachs (eds.). 'World Happiness Report'(PDF). Columbia University.CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
21. ^OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-being(PDF). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2013. doi:10.1787/9789264191655-en. ISBN978-92-64-19165-5.
22. ^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2013.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
23. ^Derek, Boc (February 2010). The Politics of Happiness : What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being. United States: Princeton University Press. p. 32. ISBN9781400832194.
24. ^Boeing; et al. (2014). 'LEED-ND and Livability Revisited'. Berkeley Planning Journal. 27: 31–55. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
25. ^Fitts, Catherine Austin. 'Understanding the Popsicle Index'. SolariF. Archived from the original on 21 November 2007. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
26. ^'To lick crime, pass the Popsicle test'. The Virginian-Pilot. 9 July 2005. Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
27. ^Darling, John (January 2006). 'Money in a Popsicle-Friendly World'. Sentient Times. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
28. ^'Quality of Life: How Good is Life for You?'. University of Toronto Quality of Life Research Unit. Retrieved 14 October 2009.
29. ^About QLC : Quality of Life Care
30. ^van der Krieke; et al. (2016). 'Temporal Dynamics of Health and Well-Being: A Crowdsourcing Approach to Momentary Assessments and Automated Generation of Personalized Feedback (2016)'. Psychosomatic Medicine. 79 (2): 213–223. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000378. PMID27551988.
31. ^'The World Bank'(PDF). The World Bank. 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
32. ^'Poverty - Overview'. The World Bank. 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
33. ^Spiegel and Huish. Canadian Foreign Aid for Global Health: Human Security Opportunity Lost.

Further reading[edit]

• Eric Ezechieli, 'Beyond Sustainable Development: Education for Gross National Happiness in Bhutan'

External links[edit]

• Learning materials related to What Matters at Wikiversity
• Quality of Life in a Changing Europe, A research project on the quality of lives and work of European citizens
• Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns, European Environment Agency
• AQoL Instruments, Quality of Life Assessment Instruments - Centre for Health Economics, Monash University Australia
• The Quality-of-Life-Recorder (Shareware/Freeware) - An electronic questionnaire platform for MS Windows and Java with preconfigured adoptions of numerous important Quality-of-Life instruments (including SF-36, EORTC QLQ-C30) in multiple languages
• Applied Research in Quality of Life, the official journal of the International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies
• Child Indicators Research, the official journal of the International Society for Child Indicators
• Quality of Life Research, an international journal of quality of life aspects of treatment, care, and rehabilitation - official journal of the International Society of Quality of Life Research
• After 2015: '3D Human Wellbeing', policy briefing on the value of refocusing development on 3D human wellbeing for pro-poor policy change, from the Institute of Development Studies, UK.